Increase the speed of Computer without Software(Increase your Pc's speed)

hi,friends here i found the new trick to increase the computer speed without software.
Do you make the simple steps
Step1:open the Run Window(WIN+R)
Step2:Type gpedit.msc then click OK button
Step3:The new window is open then select the below option
              Computer Configuration==>Administrative
               Templates==>Network==>Qos Packet Scheduler==>Limit Reversable Bandwidth
Step4:their Not Configured option is selected
         you can select Enable,then change Bandwidth value 20 to 0
Step5:RESTART your PC
Click the below link and get free rechargeCLICK HERE

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Keyboard shortcut keys

Windows system key combinations

• F1: Help
• CTRL+ESC: Open Start menu
• ALT+TAB: Switch between open programs
• ALT+F4: Quit program
• SHIFT+DELETE: Delete item permanently
• Windows Logo+L: Lock the computer (without using CTRL+ALT+DELETE)

Windows program key combinations

• CTRL+C: Copy
• CTRL+X: Cut
• CTRL+V: Paste
• CTRL+Z: Undo
• CTRL+B: Bold
• CTRL+U: Underline
• CTRL+I: Italic

Mouse click/keyboard modifier combinations for shell objects

• SHIFT+right click: Displays a shortcut menu containing alternative commands
• SHIFT+double click: Runs the alternate default command (the second item on the menu)
• ALT+double click: Displays properties
• SHIFT+DELETE: Deletes an item immediately without placing it in the Recycle Bin

General keyboard-only commands

• F1: Starts Windows Help
• F10: Activates menu bar options
• SHIFT+F10 Opens a shortcut menu for the selected item (this is the same as right-clicking an object
• CTRL+ESC: Opens the Start menu (use the ARROW keys to select an item)
• CTRL+ESC or ESC: Selects the Start button (press TAB to select the taskbar, or press SHIFT+F10 for a context menu)
• CTRL+SHIFT+ESC: Opens Windows Task Manager
• ALT+DOWN ARROW: Opens a drop-down list box
• ALT+TAB: Switch to another running program (hold down the ALT key and then press the TAB key to view the task-switching window)
• SHIFT: Press and hold down the SHIFT key while you insert a CD-ROM to bypass the automatic-run feature
• ALT+SPACE: Displays the main window's System menu (from the System menu, you can restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or close the window)
• ALT+- (ALT+hyphen): Displays the Multiple Document Interface (MDI) child window's System menu (from the MDI child window's System menu, you can restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or close the child window)
• CTRL+TAB: Switch to the next child window of a Multiple Document Interface (MDI) program
• ALT+underlined letter in menu: Opens the menu
• ALT+F4: Closes the current window
• CTRL+F4: Closes the current Multiple Document Interface (MDI) window
• ALT+F6: Switch between multiple windows in the same program (for example, when the Notepad Find dialog box is displayed, ALT+F6 switches between the Find dialog box and the main Notepad window)

Shell objects and general folder/Windows Explorer shortcuts

For a selected object:

• F2: Rename object
• F3: Find all files
• CTRL+X: Cut
• CTRL+C: Copy
• CTRL+V: Paste
• SHIFT+DELETE: Delete selection immediately, without moving the item to the Recycle Bin
• ALT+ENTER: Open the properties for the selected object

To copy a file

Press and hold down the CTRL key while you drag the file to another folder.

To create a shortcut

Press and hold down CTRL+SHIFT while you drag a file to the desktop or a folder.

General folder/shortcut control

• F4: Selects the Go To A Different Folder box and moves down the entries in the box (if the toolbar is active in Windows Explorer)
• F5: Refreshes the current window.
• F6: Moves among panes in Windows Explorer
• CTRL+G: Opens the Go To Folder tool (in Windows 95 Windows Explorer only)
• CTRL+Z: Undo the last command
• CTRL+A: Select all the items in the current window
• BACKSPACE: Switch to the parent folder
• SHIFT+click+Close button: For folders, close the current folder plus all parent folders

Windows Explorer tree control

• Numeric Keypad *: Expands everything under the current selection
• Numeric Keypad +: Expands the current selection
• Numeric Keypad -: Collapses the current selection.
• RIGHT ARROW: Expands the current selection if it is not expanded, otherwise goes to the first child
• LEFT ARROW: Collapses the current selection if it is expanded, otherwise goes to the parent

Properties control

• CTRL+TAB/CTRL+SHIFT+TAB: Move through the property tabs

Accessibility shortcuts

• Press SHIFT five times: Toggles StickyKeys on and off
• Press down and hold the right SHIFT key for eight seconds: Toggles FilterKeys on and off
• Press down and hold the NUM LOCK key for five seconds: Toggles ToggleKeys on and off
• Left ALT+left SHIFT+NUM LOCK: Toggles MouseKeys on and off
• Left ALT+left SHIFT+PRINT SCREEN: Toggles high contrast on and off

Microsoft Natural Keyboard keys

• Windows Logo: Start menu
• Windows Logo+R: Run dialog box
• Windows Logo+M: Minimize all
• SHIFT+Windows Logo+M: Undo minimize all
• Windows Logo+F1: Help
• Windows Logo+E: Windows Explorer
• Windows Logo+F: Find files or folders
• Windows Logo+D: Minimizes all open windows and displays the desktop
• CTRL+Windows Logo+F: Find computer
• CTRL+Windows Logo+TAB: Moves focus from Start, to the Quick Launch toolbar, to the system tray (use RIGHT ARROW or LEFT ARROW to move focus to items on the Quick Launch toolbar and the system tray)
• Windows Logo+TAB: Cycle through taskbar buttons
• Windows Logo+Break: System Properties dialog box
• Application key: Displays a shortcut menu for the selected item

Microsoft Natural Keyboard with IntelliType software installed

• Windows Logo+L: Log off Windows
• Windows Logo+P: Starts Print Manager
• Windows Logo+C: Opens Control Panel
• Windows Logo+V: Starts Clipboard
• Windows Logo+K: Opens Keyboard Properties dialog box
• Windows Logo+I: Opens Mouse Properties dialog box
• Windows Logo+A: Starts Accessibility Options (if installed)
• Windows Logo+SPACEBAR: Displays the list of Microsoft IntelliType shortcut keys
• Windows Logo+S: Toggles CAPS LOCK on and off

Dialog box keyboard commands

• TAB: Move to the next control in the dialog box
• SHIFT+TAB: Move to the previous control in the dialog box
• SPACEBAR: If the current control is a button, this clicks the button. If the current control is a check box, this toggles the check box. If the current control is an option, this selects the option.
• ENTER: Equivalent to clicking the selected button (the button with the outline)
• ESC: Equivalent to clicking the Cancel button
• ALT+underlined letter in dialog box item: Move to the corresponding item

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The Future: Internet2 and Next Generation Networks

The public Internet was not initially designed to handle massive quantities of data flowing through millions of networks. In response to this problem, experimental national research networks (NRN's), such as Internet2 and NGI (Next Generation Internet), are developing high speed, next generation networks.


In the United States, Internet2 is the foremost non for profit advanced networking consortium led by over 200 universities in cooperation with 70 leading corporations, 50 international partners and 45 non profit and government agencies. The Internet2 community is actively engaged in developing and testing new network technologies that are critical to the future progress of the Internet.


Internet2 operates the Internet2 Network, a next-generation hybrid optical and packet network that furnishes a 100Gbps network backbone, providing the U.S research and education community with a nationwide dynamic, robust and cost effective network that satistfies their bandwith intensive requirements. Although this private network does not replace the Internet, it does provide an environment in which cutting edge technologies can be developed that may eventually migrate to the public Internet.


Internet2 research groups are developing and implementing new technolgies such as Ipv6, multicasting and quality of service (QoS) that will enable revolutionary Internet applications.

New quality of service (QoS) technologies, for instance, would allow the Internet to provide different levels of service, depending on the type of data being transmitted. Different types of data packets could recieve different levels of priority as they travel over a network. For example, packets for an application such as videoconferencing, which require simulatneous delivery, would be assigned higher priority than e-mail messages. However, advocates of net neutrality argue that data discrimination could lead to a tiered service model being imposed on the Internet by telecom companies that would undermine Internet freedoms.


More than just a faster web, these new technologies will enable completely new advanced applications for distributed computation, digital libraries, virtual laboratories, distance learning and tele-immersion.

As next generation Internet development continues to push the boundries of what's possible, the existing Internet is also being enhanced to provide higher transmission speeds, increased security and different levels of service.

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The History of the Internet(Like internet service )

Internet Timeline

1957 – USSR launches Sputnik into space. In response, the USA creates the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA ) with the mission of becoming the leading force in science and new technologies.


1962 – J.C.R. Licklider of MIT proposes the concept of a “Galactic Network.” For the first time ideas about a global network of computers are introduced. J.C.R. Licklider is later chosen to head ARPA's research efforts.


1962 - Paul Baran, a member of the RAND Corporation, determines a way for the Air Force to control bombers and missiles in case of a nuclear event. His results call for a decentralized network comprised of packet switches.

1968 - ARPA contracts out work to BBN. BBN is called upon to build the first switch.

1969 – ARPANET created - BBN creates the first switched network by linking four different nodes in California and Utah; one at the University of Utah, one at the University of California at Santa Barbara, one at Stanford and one at the University of California at Los Angeles.

1972 - Ray Tomlinson working for BBN creates the first program devoted to email.

1972 - ARPA officially changes its name to DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.

1972 - Network Control Protocol is introduced to allow computers running on the same network to communicate with each other.

1973 - Vinton Cerf working from Stanford and Bob Kahn from DARPA begin work developing TCP/IP to allow computers on different networks to communicate with each other.

1974 - Kahn and Cerf refer to the system as the Internet for the first time.

1976 - Ethernet is developed by Dr. Robert M. Metcalfe.

1976 – SATNET, a satellite program is developed to link the United States and Europe. Satellites are owned by a consortium of nations, therby expanding the reach of the Internet beyond the USA.

1976 – Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom, sends out an email on 26 March from the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment (RSRE) in Malvern.

1976 - AT& T Bell Labs develops UUCP and UNIX.

1979 - USENET, the first news group network is developed by Tom Truscott, Jim Ellis and Steve Bellovin.

1979 - IBM introduces BITNET to work on emails and listserv systems.

1981 - The National Science Foundation releases CSNET 56 to allow computers to network without being connected to the government networks.

1983 - Internet Activities Board released.

1983 - TCP/IP becomes the standard for internet protocol.

1983 - Domain Name System introduced to allow domain names to automatically be assigned an IP number.

1984 - MCI creates T1 lines to allow for faster transportation of information over the internet.

1984- The number of Hosts breaks 1,000

1985- 100 years to the day of the last spike being driven on the Canadina Pacific Railway, the last Canadian
university was connected to NetNorth in a one year effort to have coast-to-coast connectivity

1987 - The new network CREN forms.

1987- The number of hosts breaks 10,000

1988 - Traffic rises and plans are to find a new replacement for the T1 lines.

1989- The Number of hosts breaks 100 000

1989- Arpanet ceases to exist

1990 - Advanced Network & Services (ANS) forms to research new ways to make internet speeds even
faster. The group develops the T3 line and installs in on a number of networks.

1990 - A hypertext system is created and implemented by Tim Berners-Lee while working for CERN.

1990- The first search engine is created by Mcgill Univeristy, called the Archie Search Engine

1991- U.S greenlight for commerical enterprise to take place on the Internet

1991 - The National Science Foundation (NSF) creates the National Research and Education Network (NREN).

1991 - CERN releases the World Wide Web publicly on August 6th, 1991

1992 – The Internet Society (ISOC) is chartered

1992- Number of hosts breaks 1,000,000

1993 - InterNIC released to provide general services, a database and internet directory.

1993- The first web browser, Mosaic (created by NCSA), is released. Mosaic later becomes the Netscape browser which was the most popular browser in the mid 1990's.

1994 - New networks added frequently.

1994 - First internet ordering system created by Pizza Hut.

1994 - First internet bank opened: First Virtual.

1995 - NSF contracts out their access to four internet providers.

1995 - NSF sells domains for a $50 annual fee.

1995 – Netscape goes public with 3rd largest ever Nasdaq ipo share value

1995- Registration of domains is no longer free.

1996- The WWW browser wars are waged mainly between Microsoft and Netscape. New versions are
released quarterly with the aid of internet users eager to test new (beta) versions.

1996 – Internet2 project is initiated by 34 universities

1996 - Internet Service Providers begin appearing such as Sprint and MCI.

1996 - Nokia releases first cell phone with internet access.

1997- (Arin) is established to handle administration and registration of IP numbers, now handled by
Network Solutions (IinterNic)

1998- Netscape releases source code for Navigator.


1998-Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) created to be able to oversee a number of Internet-related tasks

1999 - A wireless technology called 802.11b, more commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, is standardized.

2000- The dot com bubble bursts, numerically, on March 10, 2000, when the technology heavy NASDAQ composite index peaked at 5,048.62

2001 - Blackberry releases first internet cell phone in the United States.

2001 – The spread of P2P file sharing across the Internet

2002 -Internet2 now has 200 university, 60 corporate and 40 affiliate members

2003- The French Ministry of Culture bans the use of the word "e-mail" by government ministries, and
adopts the use of the more French sounding "courriel"


2004 – The Term Web 2.0 rises in popularity when O'Reilly and MediaLive host the first Web 2.0 conference.


2004- Mydoom, the fastest ever spreading email computer worm is released. Estimated 1 in 12 emails are infected.


2005- Estonia offers Internet Voting nationally for local elections


2005-Youtube launches


2006- There are an esitmated 92 million websites online


2006 – Zimbabwe's internet access is almost completely cut off after international satellite communications provider Intelsat cuts service for non-payment


2006- Internet2 announced a partnership with Level 3 Communications to launch a brand new nationwide network, boosting its capacity from 10Gbps to 100Gbps


2007- Internet2 officially retires Abilene and now refers to its new, higher capacity network as the Internet2 Network


2008- Google index reaches 1 Trillion URLs


2008 – NASA successfully tests the first deep space communications network modeled on the Internet.
Using software called Disruption-Tolerant Networking, or DTN, dozens of space images are transmitted to and from a NASA science spacecraft located about more than 32 million kilometers from Earth


2009 – ICANN gains autonomy from the U.S government


2010- Facebook announces in Februrary that it has 400 million active users.


2010 – The U.S House of Representatives passes the Cybersecurity Enhancement Act (H.R. 4061)

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All (Ctrl+Alt+Del) Permanently deleted files Recovery solution

All (Ctrl+Alt+Del) Permanently deleted files Recovery solution

Sometimes we delete the files permanently, and realize that deleting them is like a Blunder...

For all those folks,

Here is the solution

Software called "Kissass Undelete" , can bring those files from the hard disk or your flash drive.

Conditions : Only if the data on that drive is not re-occupied(or written). that means the space which was available after the deletion is not been occupied after the deletion.

Click Here to download the .

1)

To start searching for the files,

Select the drive from the Left panel of the Windows and Click the scan button.

the Scan might take upto 10 secs.

2)

When the files search has been completed, it will show you the results with the name, typ, size and the last modified date of the searched file.

3) Now you can select the file to be recover. This is an Open source application and available for All Windows OS(Windows XP/Vista/ 7).

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Types of Compyter virus

Everyone dreads being the recipient of a computer virus, but not everyone minds studying them. There are researchers who spend a lot of time looking into different types of computer viruses and related security threats in order to determine how they’re programmed, how they do damage, and how they spread. Personally, I find this field interesting, and I enjoy reading about the different types of viruses in existence.
But even if you don’t know much care, basic knowledge about security threats can be useful. It’s sometimes hard to know how a risk must be dealt with before you know its consequences. With a computer virus, however, the consequence is sometimes complete loss of your data or identity theft – so it’s best to learn sooner rather than later!

1. Boot Sector Virus

The term “boot sector” is a generic name that seems to originally come from MS-DOS but is now applied generally to the boot information used by any operating system. In modern computers this is usually called the “master boot record,” and it is the first sector on a partitioned storage device.
Boot sector viruses became popular because of the use of floppy disks to boot a computer. The widespread usage of the Internet and the death of the floppy has made other means of virus transmission more effective.

2. Browser Hijacker

This type of virus, which can spread itself in numerous ways including voluntary download, effectively hijacks certain browser functions, usually in the form of re-directing the user automatically to particular sites. It’s usually assumed that this tactic is designed to increase revenue from web advertisements.

Ads by Google

 

There are a lot of such viruses, and they usually have “search” included somewhere in their description. CoolWebSearch may be the most well known example, but others are nearly as common.

3. Direct Action Virus

This type of virus, unlike most, only comes into action when the file containing the virus is executed. The payload is delivered and then the virus essentially becomes dormant – it takes no other action unless an infected file is executed again.
Most viruses do not use the direct action method of reproduction simply because it is not prolific, but viruses of this type have done damage in the past. The Vienna virus, which briefly threatened computers in 1988, is one such example of a direct action virus.

4. File Infector Virus

Perhaps the most common type of virus, the file infector takes root in a host file and then begins its operation when the file is executed. The virus may completely overwrite the file that it infects, or may only replace parts of the file, or may not replace anything but instead re-write the file so that the virus is executed rather than the program the user intended.
Although called a “file virus” the definition doesn’t apply to all viruses in all files generally – for example, the macro virus below is not referred to by the file virus. Instead, the definition is usually meant to refer only to viruses which use an executable file format, such as .exe, as their host.

5. Macro Virus

A wide variety of programs, including productivity applications like Microsoft Excel, provide support for Macros – special actions programmed into the document using a specific macro programming language. Unfortunately, this makes it possible for a virus to be hidden inside a seemingly benign document.
Macro viruses very widely in terms of payload. The most well known macro virus is probably Melissa, a Word document supposedly containing the passwords to pornographic websites. The virus also exploited Word’s link to Microsoft Outlook in order to automatically email copies of itself.

6. Multipartite Virus

While some viruses are happy to spread via one method or deliver a single payload, Multipartite viruses want it all. A virus of this type may spread in multiple ways, and it may take different actions on an infected computer depending on variables, such as the operating system installed or the existence of certain files.

7. Polymorphic Virus

Another jack-of-all-trades, the Polymorphic virus actually mutates over time or after every execution, changing the code used to deliver its payload. Alternatively, or in addition, a Polymorphic virus may guard itself with an encryption algorithm that automatically alters itself when certain conditions are met.
The goal of this trickery is evasion. Antivirus programs often find viruses by the specific code used. Obscuring or changing the code of a virus can help it avoid detection.

8. Resident Virus

This broad virus definition applies to any virus that inserts itself into a system’s memory. It then may take any number of actions and run independently of the file that was originally infected.
A resident virus can be compared to a direct payload virus, which does not insert itself into the system’s memory and therefore only takes action when an infected file is executed.

9. Web Scripting Virus

Many websites execute complex code in order to provide interesting content. Displaying online video in your browser, for example, requires the execution of a specific code language that provides both the video itself and the player interface.
Of course, this code can sometimes be exploited, making it possible for a virus to infect a computer or take actions on a computer through a website. Although malicious sites are sometimes created with purposely infected code, many such cases of virus exist because of code inserted into a site without the webmaster’s knowledge.

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Parts of computer

parts of computers
Everything inside the computer is connected to a circuit board called the 'motherboard'. The motherboard has sockets for low-level programming (BIOS), the computer's brain, called a CPU; the computer's memory (RAM, ROM and CMOS); and for add-on cards to control the video (picture), audio (sound), printer and anything else that might be connected to the computer. You may also find a modem inside on an add-on card.
CPU: stands for 'Central Processing Unit' and is the 'brain' of the computer. Most CPU's today are made by Intel and bear such names as 'Pentium', 'Pentium Pro' and 'Pentium II'. Older Intel CPU's include the 80486 and 80386 families. Other manufacturers also make CPU's: Motorola for the Macintosh, AMD and Cirrus for PC's and others. The 'speed' of a CPU's processing is measured in megahertz. The CPU is the place that holds info about the operating system (DOS or Windows, for example).
RAM: RAM is what you know as “Memory”, as in how much memory does your computer have? It is not permanent memory - the RAM is erased when the computer turns off. Permanent memory is stored on the hard drive. Memory is measured in increments of bits and bytes. Generally the least memory you should ever have with a Pentium computer is 64 MB (megabytes: look up kilo-, mega-, and giga- for more info), and more is much better. There are places on the motherboard (called “slots”) for memory modules. The memory modules are small printed circuit boards with memory chips on them and are usually either SIMM’s (Single Inline Memory Modules) or DIMM’s (Dual Inline Memory Module). Don't confuse this with ROM.
This is an add-in or expansion board such as a video card, sound card or modem. On every motherboard there are places to add circuit boards to extend the capabilities of the computer. The most common circuit boards used are the internal modem,  sound card, and the video display adapter. There are various types of expansion slots that may be on the motherboard. The ISA (Industry Standards Association) expansion slot is the older type and most of the older circuit boards used this type of slot. A more sophisticated type of slot is the PCI and the newer modems, and more sophisticated sound cards require this type of slot. The newest type slot in a PC is the AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) slot, which is specifically designed for a video display adapter. The AGP port enables high performance graphics capabilities, especially for 3D graphics. The video card controls what you see on the monitor. It determines how many dots across the screen and down the screen the computer can look after. The more dots, the more information or the more detail you can see. The video card also controls how many colors you can see. Most computers today can show anywhere from 256 colors to many millions of colors. The sound card controls the sound. Most computers come with pretty cheap speakers, and the sound card can probably produce much better sound than the speakers can. With good speakers, today's sound cards can make your computer sound as good as a stereo!
The hard drive uses disks that are made of aluminum or glass (and therefore 'hard'). Each disk can store much more information than either a floppy or CD-ROM. Sometimes, there may be several disks in a hard drive. However, the disks in a normal hard drive can not be removed or replaced. Today, hard drives are measured in gigabytes. That's one thousand million bytes. 1 gigabyte is about 11/3 CD-ROM disks. Sometimes a special cache is used for quick retrieval of often-used information (such as web pages). This is just a separate directory on the hard drive.
Generally when we talk about a floppy disk drive we are talking about the drive that uses the 3.5 inch 1.44Mb floppy disk in it. There have been other types that have  come and gone.
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk – Read Only Memory. The original name was WORM drive, which meant Write Once Read Many. So the term CD-ROM is not really very accurate, but it is the name that has stuck.
At one time there was the PC keyboard, the AT keyboard, and the 101 key enhanced keyboard, which had F9 through F12 keys and a separate numeric keypad. Now the 101 key enhanced keyboard is the standard type and keyboards are named according to the type of connection it makes to the computer. The two common types of connectors that go from the keyboard to the computer motherboard are the AT and the PS/2.  The AT is the larger older type, and the PS/2 is a newer type and communicates better with he computer.
There are a lot of varieties of mice in use today. Some have two buttons, some have 3 buttons, and some have a roller ball on top and  don't require you to actually move the mouse on the desktop. There are also programmable mice, touch pads that substitute for a mouse, etc.. The standard types are the Serial, and the PS/2. The Serial mouse plugs into one of the 9 pin serial port of your computer (COM1),  and the PS/2 mouse plugs into a special PS/2 port on your computer.
A modem allows your computer to connect to another computer using the normal telephone line. It converts data from a computer format, which requires many wires, into a format that can be sent using only the two wires of a telephone line. At the other end of the telephone wires the process is reversed. Data transfer rates from the modem vary from 14.4Kbs to 56Kbs. (14.4Kbs, 28.8Kbs, 33.6Kbs, 56Kbs) There are special types of modems such as cable modems that can communicate at much higher data rates.
The USB (Universal Serial Bus) connector is the newest type port (connector) on the PC. It is extremely easy to use. You just plug in a USB compatible device and the computer automatically configures itself to use the device. The computer does not have to be turned off or rebooted. As many as 127 USB peripherals can be plugged into a computer at one time. At 12Mbits per second it is more than 100 times as fast as a serial port. The next generation USB motherboards will communicate at 480Mbits per second.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Unix and Linux shortcut keys

Keyboard shortcut keys

CTRL + B	Moves the cursor backward one character.
CTRL + C	Cancels the currently running command.
CTRL + D	Logs out of the current session.
CTRL + F	Moves the cursor forward one character.
CTRL + H	Erase one character. Similar to pressing backspace.
CTRL + P	Paste previous line(s).
CTRL + S	Stops all output on screen (XOFF).
CTRL + Q	Turns all output stopped on screen back on (XON).
CTRL + U	Erases the complete line.
CTRL + W	Deletes the last word typed in. For example, if you typed 'mv file1 file2' this shortcut would delete file2.
CTRL + Z	Cancels current operation, moves back a directory or takes the current operation and moves it to the background. See bg command for additional information about background.

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Different types of firewall

Some of the most powerful firewall software on the market is designed to run on an ordinary computer — probably a dedicated server if you're securing a large network. Other firewall software is designed to run on proprietary hardware that you have to buy along with the software, turning the bundle into a "security appliance." As a general rule, appliances are faster, easier to install and operate — and also more expensive. But there's no guarantee that an appliance will do a better job than a software-only firewall. Software firewalls tend to be more flexible, and it's easier to upgrade the hardware it's running on.

Network-Level Firewalls

The first generation of firewalls (c. 1988) worked at the network level by inspecting packet headers and filtering traffic based on the IP address of the source and the destination, the port and the service. Some of these primeval security applications could also filter packets based on protocols, the domain name of the source and a few other attributes.
Network-level firewalls are fast, and today you'll find them built into most network appliances, particularly routers. These firewalls, however, don't support sophisticated rule-based models. They don’t understand languages like HTML and XML, and they are capable of decoding SSL-encrypted packets to examine their content. As a result, they can’t validate user inputs or detect maliciously modified parameters in an URL request. This leaves your network vulnerable to a number of serious threats.

Circuit-Level Firewalls

These applications, which represent the second-generation of firewall technology, monitor TCP handshaking between packets to make sure a session is legitimate. Traffic is filtered based on specified session rules and may be restricted to recognized computers only. Circuit-level firewalls hide the network itself from the outside, which is useful for denying access to intruders. But they don't filter individual packets.

Application-Level Firewalls

Recently, application-level firewalls (sometimes called proxies) have been looking more deeply into the application data going through their filters. By considering the context of client requests and application responses, these firewalls attempt to enforce correct application behavior, block malicious activity and help organizations ensure the safety of sensitive information and systems. They can log user activity too. Application-level filtering may include protection against spam and viruses as well, and be able to block undesirable Web sites based on content rather than just their IP address.
If that sounds too good to be true, it is. The downside to deep packet inspection is that the more closely a firewall examines network data flow, the longer it takes, and the heavier hit your network performance will sustain. This is why the highest-end security appliances include lots of RAM to speed packet processing. And of course you'll pay for the added chips.

Stateful Multi-level Firewalls

SML vendors claim that their products deploy the best features of the other three firewall types. They filter packets at the network level and they recognize and process application-level data, but since they don't employ proxies, they deliver reasonably good performance in spite of the deep packet analysis. On the downside, they are not cheap, and they can be difficult to configure and administer.

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Different types of operating system

Different Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems that create a link between users and the applications form the core of computer systems. An OS dissociates the programs from the hardware and simplifies resource management. Let us look at the different types of operating systems and know how they differ from one another.

An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources. It hosts several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programming interfaces. Users interact with a computer operating system through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, an operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Here is an overview of the different types of operating systems.

Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their priorities while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.

Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems: Computer operating systems of this type allow multiple users to access a computer system simultaneously. Time-sharing systems can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through time sharing. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by only one user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system.

Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under the single-tasking system category, while in case the operating system allows for execution of multiple tasks at a time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types namely, pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. If you are aware of the multi-threading terminology, you can consider this type of multi-tasking as similar to interleaved multi-threading. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. This kind of multi-tasking is similar to the idea of block multi-threading in which one thread runs till it is blocked by some other event. MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperative multitasking.

Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could be linked and made to communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.

Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE, FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.

Mobile Operating System: Though not a functionally distinct kind of operating system, mobile OS is definitely an important mention in the list of operating system types. A mobile OS controls a mobile device and its design supports wireless communication and mobile applications. It has built-in support for mobile multimedia formats. Tablet PCs and smartphones run on mobile operating systems.

Batch Processing and Interactive Systems: Batch processing refers to execution of computer programs in 'batches' without manual intervention. In batch processing systems, programs are collected, grouped and processed on a later date. There is no prompting the user for inputs as input data are collected in advance for future processing. Input data are collected and processed in batches, hence the name batch processing. IBM's z/OS has batch processing capabilities. As against this, interactive operating requires user intervention. The process cannot be executed in the user's absence.

Online and Offline Processing: In online processing of data, the user remains in contact with the computer and processes are executed under control of the computer's central processing unit. When processes are not executed under direct control of the CPU, the processing is referred to as offline. Let's take the example of batch processing. Here, the batching or grouping of data can be done without user and CPU intervention; it can be done offline. But the actual process execution may happen under direct control of the processor, that is online.

Operating systems contribute to simplifying human interaction with the computer hardware. They are responsible for linking application programs with the hardware, thus achieving easy user access to computers. Ever imagined a computer without an OS? It wouldn't be so user-friendly then!

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Photoshop shortcut keys

Photoshop Shortcut Keys

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One of Photoshop's key features is that almost everything in it can be controlled using keyboard shortcuts. This allows the user to stay in a creative thought pattern and quickly change tools in monotonous work that requires it.
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F1 - Toggles Adobe Online Help

F5 - Toggles Brush style palette

F6 - Toggles Colour, Swatches, Styles palette

F7 - Toggles Layers, Channels, Paths palette

F8 - Toggles Navigator, Info palette

F9 - Toggles Actions, History, Presets palette

Tab (Key) - Toggles all the palettes on screen
Shift + Tab (Key) - Toggles palettes on screen, excluding the Toolbar.

Ctrl Short Cuts -Ctrl + N - New Document Dialogue Box
Ctrl + M - Curves Dialogue Box
Ctrl + A - Selects all in the currently foreground document or currently selected layer
Ctrl + J - Automatically creates a duplicate of the currently selected layer
Ctrl + K - Preferences Dialogue Box
Ctrl + L - Levels Dialogue Box
Ctrl + F4 - Closes current document
Ctrl + ' (Single Quote Key) - Toggles Grid Lines
Ctrl + Q - Quits Photoshop altogether
Ctrl + R - Toggles Rulers
Ctrl + U - Hue/Saturation Dialogue Box
Ctrl + O - Opens New File
Ctrl + P - Print Dialogue Box
Ctrl + Z - Undo last Action
Ctrl + Tab - Toggle between open documents
Ctrl + Shift + C - Copy Merged
Ctrl + C - Copy
Ctrl + H - Toggle Extras
Ctrl + ; - Toggle Guides
Ctrl + Shift + ; - Toggle Snap
Ctrl + X - Cut
Ctrl + Alt + Shift + X - Pattern Maker
Ctrl + V - Paste
Ctrl + Shift + V - Paste into selection
Ctrl + Alt + Shift + V - Paste Outside
Ctrl + T - Transform Tool
Ctrl + Shift + T - Repeats the last performed Transform
Shift + F5 / Shift + Backspace (Key) - Fill Layer Dialogue Box
Combination Number 9 Shortcuts - Ctrl + Shift / Alt -
Ctrl + Shift + O - Photoshop's File Browser
Ctrl + Shift + P - Page Setup Dialogue Box
Ctrl + Shift + S - Save As Dialogue Box
Ctrl + Shift + K - Color Setting Preferences Box
Ctrl + Shift + F - Fade Dialogue Box
Ctrl + Shift + X - Liquify Filter Tool
Ctrl + Shift + N - Create New Layer Preferences Box
Ctrl + Shift + M - Launches ImageReady
Ctrl + Shift + E - Merges all layers into a single layer
Ctrl + Alt + Z - Step Backward
Ctrl + Shift + - (Minus Sign Key) - Zoom Out
Ctrl + Shift + + (Plus Sign Key) - Zoom In
Ctrl + Shift + Alt + N - Creates a new empty layer
Ctrl + Shift + Alt + S - Save For The Web Dialogue
Ctrl + Alt (in most Dialogue Boxes) - Changes the 'Cancel' command to 'Reset'
Ctrl + Alt (in the 'Save For Web Dialogue') - Changes the 'Cancel' command to 'Reset' & the 'Done' command to 'Remember'
Ctrl + Alt + ~(Tild Symbol) - Selects the brightest area of the currently selected layer
Ctrl + Shift + I - Inverts a selection
Ctrl + Alt + X - Extract
Shift + -/+ signs(on a layer) - Toggles the different layer modes
Shift + Ctrl + Z - Step Forward

File Menu Shortcuts:

Ctrl+N: New Document
Ctrl+O: Open Document
Shift+Ctrl+O: Browse
Alt+Ctrl+O:Open As
Ctrl+W: Close
Ctrl+Shift+W: Close All
Ctrl+S: Save
Ctrl+Shift+S: Save As
Ctrl+Alt+S: Save a Copy
Ctrl+Alt+Shift+ S: Save for Web
Ctrl+Shift+P: Page Setup
Ctrl+Shift+M: Jump to Image Ready
Ctrl+Q: Exit

Viewing Shortcuts:

Ctrl+Y: Proof Colors
Ctrl++: Zoom In
Ctrl+-: Zoom Out
Ctrl+Alt++: Zoom In & Resize Window
Ctrl+Alt+-: Zoom Out & Resize Window
Ctrl+Alt+0: Actual Pixels
Ctrl+Shift+H: Show/Hide Target Path
Ctrl+R: Show/Hide Rulers
Ctrl+Shift+; : On/Off Snap
Ctrl+H: Show/Hide Extras
Ctrl+Alt+;: Lock Guides
Ctrl+;: Show Guides
Ctrl+': Show Grid

Tools Shortcuts:

A: Path Component Selection Tool
B: Paintbrush Tool
C: Crop Tool
D: Changes Default Colour Palettes To Black Foreground, White Background
E: Eraser Tool
F: Cycle Screen Modes
G: Gradient Tool
H: Hand Tool
I: Eyedropper Tool
J: Airbrush Tool
K: Slice Tool
L: Lasso Tool
M: Marquee Tool
N: Notes
O: Dodge/Burn/Sponge Tool
P: Pen Tool
Q: Quick Mask
R: Blur/Sharpen/ Smudge Tool
S: Clone Stamp
T: Type Tool
U: Shape Tool
V: Move Tool
W: Magic Wand
X: Swap Colours On Colour Pallete
Y: History Brush
Z: Zoom Tool


Ctrl+Shift+N: New Layer
Ctrl+J: Layer via Copy
Ctrl+Shift+J: Layer via Cut
Ctrl+G: Group with Previous
Ctrl+Shift+] : Bring to Front
Ctrl+]: Bring Forward
Ctrl+[: Send Backward
Ctrl+Shift+[ : Send Back
Ctrl+E: Merge Layers
Ctrl+Shift+E: Merge Visible

Image Manipulation Shortcuts:

Ctrl+L: Adjust Levels
Ctrl+Shift+L: Adjust Auto Levels
Ctrl+Alt+Shift+ L: Adjust Auto Contrast
Ctrl+M: Adjust Curves
Ctrl+B: Adjust Color Balance
Ctrl+U: Adjust Hue/Saturation
Ctrl+Shift+U: Desaturate
Ctrl+I: Invert
Ctrl+Alt+X: Extract

Filters Shortcuts:

Ctrl+F: Last Filter
Ctrl+Shift+F: Fade
Ctrl+Alt+X: Extract
Ctrl+Shift+X: Liquify
Ctrl+Shift+Alt+ X: Pattern Make

Selection Shortcuts:

Ctrl+A: Select All
Ctrl+D: Deselect
Ctrl+Shift+D: Reselect
Ctrl+Shift+I: Inverse
Ctrl+Alt+D: Feather

Random Shortcuts:

Alt+Backspace: Fill with Forground Color
Shift+Backspace: Fill with Background Color
Alt+]: Ascend through Layers
Alt+[: Descend through Layers
Shift+Alt+]: Select Top Layer
Shift+Alt+[: Select Bottom Layer
Tab: Show/Hide All Palettes

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Microsoft Excel Shortcut keys

Click here to get free recharge Shortcut Keys	Description
F2	Edit the selected cell.
F5	Go to a specific cell. For example, C6.
F7	Spell check selected text or document.
F11	Create chart.
Ctrl + Shift + ;	Enter the current time.
Ctrl + ;	Enter the current date.
Alt + Shift + F1	Insert New Worksheet.
Shift + F3	Open the Excel formula window.
Shift + F5	Bring up search box.
Ctrl + A	Select all contents of the worksheet.
Ctrl + B	Bold highlighted selection.
Ctrl + I	Italic highlighted selection.
Ctrl + K	Insert link.
Ctrl + U	Underline highlighted selection.
Ctrl + 5	Strikethrough highlighted selection.
Ctrl + P	Bring up the print dialog box to begin printing.
Ctrl + Z	Undo last action.
Ctrl + F9	Minimize current window.
Ctrl + F10	Maximize currently selected window.
Ctrl + F6	Switch between open workbooks or windows.
Ctrl + Page up	Move between Excel work sheets in the same Excel document.
Ctrl + Page down	Move between Excel work sheets in the same Excel document.
Ctrl + Tab	Move between Two or more open Excel files.
Alt + =	Create a formula to sum all of the above cells
Ctrl + '	Insert the value of the above cell into cell currently selected.
Ctrl + Shift + !	Format number in comma format.
Ctrl + Shift + $	Format number in currency format.
Ctrl + Shift + #	Format number in date format.
Ctrl + Shift + %	Format number in percentage format.
Ctrl + Shift + ^	Format number in scientific format.
Ctrl + Shift + @	Format number in time format.
Ctrl + Arrow key	Move to next section of text.
Ctrl + Space	Select entire column.
Shift + Space	Select entire row.

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microsoft windows shortcut keys

Shortcut Keys	3.x	9x	ME	NT	2K	XP	Vista	7	Description
Alt + Tab	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Switch between open applications.
Alt + Shift + Tab	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Switch backwards between open applications.
Alt + double-click		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Display the properties of the object you double-click on. For example, doing this on a file would display its properties.
Ctrl + Tab	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Switches between program groups or document windows in applications that support this feature.
Ctrl + Shift + Tab	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Same as above but backwards.
Alt + Print Screen	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Create a screen shot only for the program you are currently in.
Ctrl + Print Screen					X	X	X	X	Creates a screen shot of the entire screen
Ctrl + Alt + Del	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Reboot the computer and brings up the Windows task manager.
Ctrl + Shift + Esc					X	X	X	X	Immediately bring up the Windows task manager.
Ctrl + Esc	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Bring up the Windows Start menu. In Windows 3.x this would bring up the Task Manager.
Alt + Esc		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Switch Between open applications on taskbar.
F1	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Activates help for current open application.
F2	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Renames selected Icon.
F3		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Starts find from desktop.
F4		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Opens the drive selection when browsing.
F5		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Refresh Contents to where you were on the page.
Ctrl + F5							X	X	Refreshes page to the beginning of the page.
F10	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Activates menu bar.
Shift + F10		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Simulates right-click on selected item.
F4		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Select a different location to browse in the Windows Explorer toolbar.
Alt + F4	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Closes Current open program.
Ctrl + F4	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Closes Window in Program.
F6		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Move cursor to different Windows Explorer pane.
Alt + Space bar	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Drops down the window control menu.
Ctrl + (the '+' key on the keypad)			X	X	X	X	X	X	Automatically adjust the widths of all the columns in Windows explorer
Alt + Enter		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Opens properties window of selected icon or program.
Alt + Space bar		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Open the control menu for the current window open.
Shift + Del		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Delete programs/files without throwing them into the recycle bin.
Holding Shift	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Boot Safe Mode or by pass system files as the computer is booting.
Holding Shift		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	When putting in an audio CD, will prevent CD Player from playing.
Enter	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Activates the highlighted program.
Alt + Down arrow		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Display all available options on drop down menu.
* (on the keypad)		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Expands all folders on the currently selected folder or drive in Windows Explorer.
+ (on the keypad)		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Expands only the currently selected folder in Windows Explorer.
- (on the keypad)		X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Collapses the currently selected folder in Windows Explorer.

Windows key keyboard shortcuts

Below is a listing of Windows keys that can be used on computers running a Microsoft Windows operating system and using a keyboard with a Windows key. In the below list of shortcuts, the Windows key is represented by "WINKEY".

Shortcut Keys	Description
WINKEY	Pressing the Windows key alone will open Start.
WINKEY + F1	Opens the Microsoft Windows help and support center.
WINKEY + F3	Opens the Advanced find window in Microsoft Outlook.
WINKEY + D	Brings the desktop to the top of all other windows.
WINKEY + M	Minimizes all windows.
WINKEY + SHIFT + M	Undo the minimize done by WINKEY + M and WINKEY + D.
WINKEY + E	Open Microsoft Explorer.
WINKEY + Tab	Cycle through open programs through the taskbar.
WINKEY + F	Display the Windows Search or Find feature.
WINKEY + CTRL + F	Display the search for computers window.
WINKEY + R	Open the run window.
WINKEY + Pause / Break key	Open the System Properties window.
WINKEY + U	Open Utility Manager.
WINKEY + L	Lock the computer and switch users if needed (Windows XP and above only).
WINKEY + P	Quickly change between monitor display types. (Windows 7 only)
WINKEY + LEFT ARROW	Shrinks the window to 1/2 screen on the left side for side by side viewing. (Windows 7 only)
WINKEY + RIGHT ARROW	Shrinks the window to 1/2 screen on the right side for side by side viewing. (Windows 7 only)
WINKEY + UP ARROW	When in the side by side viewing mode, this shortcut takes the screen back to full size. (Windows 7 only)
WINKEY + DOWN ARROW	Minimizes the screen.  Also, when in the side by side viewing mode, this shortcut takes the screen back to a minimized size. (Windows 7 only) click here to get free recharge

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shortcut keys for computer keyboard

Shortcut Keys	Description
Alt + F	File menu options in current program.
Alt + E	Edit options in current program
F1	Universal Help in almost every Windows program.
Ctrl + A	Select all text.
Ctrl + X	Cut selected item.
Shift + Del	Cut selected item.
Ctrl + C	Copy selected item.
Ctrl + Ins	Copy selected item
Ctrl + V	Paste
Shift + Ins	Paste
Home	Goes to beginning of current line.
Ctrl + Home	Goes to beginning of document.
End	Goes to end of current line.
Ctrl + End	Goes to end of document.
Shift + Home	Highlights from current position to beginning of line.
Shift + End	Highlights from current position to end of line.
Ctrl + Left arrow	Moves one word to the left at a time.
Ctrl + Right arrow	Moves one word to the right at a time.

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